Dual mediator biosensor

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides a device for detecting the presence of an analyte in a sample, said device comprising (i) at least one electrode, (ii) a oxidase enzyme, and (iii) first and second redox mediators.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a biosensor comprising a dual electron acceptor system. The invention is also directed to uses of the biosensor for detecting an analyte, in particular arsenic derivatives such as arsenite, in a sample.

BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION

It is said that the third major challenge for a sustainable future (together with food security and energy) will be making the best use of limited supplies of pure water for both agricultural use and human consumption, and the remediation of marginal and contaminated water will be essential in achieving this. Already groundwater contamination, resulting from either natural geochemical processes or industrial activities such as mining, is a major problem in many countries.

Arsenic (As) is a groundwater contaminant that is ubiquitous in the environment and the two soluble forms, arsenite (As^(III)) and arsenate (As^(V)), are toxic. Anthropogenic activity has resulted in widespread contamination of both soluble forms but As^(III) is prevalent in anoxic environments, including most sources of drinking water. Countries affected include India, Bangladesh, Vietnam, USA, Germany, France, Hungary, Australia, Argentina, Mexico, Canada.

An important aspect of remediation is assessment and monitoring, and whilst laboratory methods exist that demonstrate high specificity and sensitivity (e.g. ICP-MS or HPLC) it is also possible, and indeed desirable, to measure analytes such as arsenite in the field using sensors. Ideally, the sensors should be low-cost, disposable and able to be readily adapted to multiple analytes that are commonly found together in contaminated water.

Many As field test kits are commercially available (e.g. from Industrial Systems, Inc, Hydrodyne) but these only detect total As, rather than the most toxic form, As^(III), which is dominant in anoxic drinking waters. Moreover, because As remediation preferentially removes As^(V) (e.g. by binding to iron hydroxide) and requires the pre-oxidation of As^(III), it is crucial to determine whether any As^(III) remains in the water. The chemically based arsenic field kits rely on a colorimetric method which reduces the As^(III) and As^(V) to the gas arsine which reacts with the mercuric bromide test strips. These kits require the training of personnel, are expensive (e.g. Arsenic, Quick II Hydrodyne kit US$4.24 per test and Ultra Low Quick II, Industrial Test Systems, Inc. US$6 per test) and have low sensitivity and reproducibility.

Whole cell biosensors have been developed for the detection of As^(III) by a number of groups (e.g. Stocker et al. (2003) Environ. Sci. Technol. 37, 4743-4750). These methods are all based on colorimetric assays that sometimes require the use of a luminometer. They all use the regulatory mechanism of the Escherichia coli arsenic resistance system which detects both As^(III) and antimonite (Sb^(III)). The regulatory gene in this system, arsR, is fused to a reporter gene (e.g. luciferase gene, luxB) that when expressed after induction with As^(III) produces a visible signal (e.g. fluorescence).

There are many problems with whole cell based As^(III) biosensors, including: 1) the system is too complex and because of this has a slow response time (i.e. As^(III) must enter cells followed by induction of regulator-reporter gene protein this can take up to 24 hours for a response); 2) lack of specificity as the system does not discriminate between As^(III) and SIP; 3) incubation temperatures of 30° C. are often required; 4) colorimetric assay often requires use of a luminometer, which is not feasible at most field sites; and 5) use of genetically modified organisms always presents an additional problem. No whole cell biosensors for the detection of As^(III) are commercially available.

A biosensor for As^(III) has been developed using molybdenum-containing arsenite oxidase (known as “Aio” and also previously known as Aro and Aso; see Lett et al., Unified Nomenclature for Genes Involved in Prokaryotic Aerobic Arsenite Oxidation; J. Bacteriology, 4 Nov. 2011; p. 207-208) which is a member of the DMSO reductase family, prepared from chemolithoautotrophic Alphaproteobacterium Rhizobium sp. strain NT-26 (Santini et al. (2000) Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66, 92-97).

As^(III) oxidase catalyses the oxidation of As^(III) to As^(V) and the suitability of this native enzyme for use as a biosensor has been tested and shown to detect down to 1 ppb As^(III), which is 10 times lower than the recommended WHO MCL (maximum contaminant level) of As in drinking water. Furthermore the native enzyme shows specificity for As^(III) (Male et al. (2007) Anal. Chem. 79, 7831-7837). The biosensor comprises the enzyme directly linked to the surface of a mulitwalled carbon nanotube-modified electrode, in which electron transfer proceeds directly from enzyme to electrode. The authors noted, however, that certain commonly-used electrode materials, in particular glassy carbon (GC), were not suitable for direct electron transfer in this configuration.

Heterologous expression of molybdenum-containing enzymes, especially members of the DMSO reductase family, is notoriously difficult. Recently, the dissimilatory arsenate reductase from Shewanella sp. str. ANA-3 was expressed in Escherichia coli but comparisons with the native enzyme were not made (Malasarn et al. (2008) J. Bacteriol. 190, 135-142). Expression was optimal when E. coli was grown anaerobically with DMSO although other electron acceptors for anaerobic growth were not tested and neither were different strains.

Since the entire native Aio is poorly expressed in a heterologous expression system, such as E. coli, use of this enzyme in routine detection of As^(III) is not commercially viable.

WO2013/057515 discloses a modified arsenite oxidase and a biosensor for detecting arsenite. In this prior art publication, the native arsenite oxidase enzyme As^(III) oxidase from Rhizobium sp. NT-26 was modified to prevent translocation to the periplasm. The modified enzyme comprises the native AioA subunit from NT-26, or a variant, homologue or derivative thereof, and the native AioB subunit from NT-26, or a variant, homologue or derivative thereof. Furthermore, a portion of the native AioB subunit corresponding to the translocation signal sequence, or a functional fragment thereof, is modified.

There is still a need in the art for improved sensors for rapid, cheap and effective detection of As^(III) in liquids such as drinking-water, waste-water and biological samples.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

According to a first aspect, the present invention provides a device for detecting the presence of an analyte in a sample, comprising (i) at least one electrode, (ii) an oxidase enzyme, and (iii) first and second redox mediators. Preferably, the enzyme is an arsenite oxidase and the analyte is arsenite (As^(III)).

According to a second aspect, the present invention is directed to the use of a device according to the first aspect of the invention as a biosensor to detect the presence of As^(III) in a sample. Preferably, the sample has a neutral pH of around 7.

According to a third aspect, the present invention provides an electrochemical system comprising an oxidase enzyme, an electrode and two redox mediators. Preferably, the enzyme is an arsenite oxidase.

According to a fourth aspect, the present invention is directed to the use of an electrochemical system according to the third aspect of the invention to increase the overall reaction rate of a biosensor. Preferably, the biosensor is an arsenite biosensor.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 is an illustration of how including two redox mediators in an arsenic biosensor increases the overall reaction rates of the device at neutral pH.

FIG. 2a shows the chronoamperometry results for experiment 1. FIG. 2b is a magnified plot of FIG. 2 a.

FIG. 3 shows a plot of the integration of the chronoamperometry data shown in FIGS. 2a and 2 b.

FIG. 4a shows the chronoamperometry results for experiment 2. FIG. 4b is a magnified plot of FIG. 4 a.

FIG. 5 shows a plot of the integration of the chronoamperometry data shown in FIGS. 4a and 4 b.

FIG. 6a shows the chronoamperometry results for experiment 3. FIG. 6b is a magnified plot of FIG. 6 a.

FIG. 7 shows a plot of the integration of the chronoamperometry data shown in FIGS. 6a and 6 b.

FIG. 8 is a graph showing the accumulative charge at 60 seconds for experiments 1, 2 and 3 using 750 ppb arsenite. Each experiment was conducted in triplicates. The dual mediator gave a ×3.5 increase in signal.

FIG. 9 is a graph showing a plot of the current at 20 seconds against concentration of arsenite (0 ppb, 250 ppb, 500 ppb and 750 ppb) for experiments 1, 2 and 3.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present inventors previously developed a modified version of the native As^(III) oxidase from Rhizobium sp. NT-26 (GenBank Accession Number AY345225) which can be successfully expressed in heterologous expression systems such as E. coli. The modified arsenite oxidase (Aio-NT26) oxidises arsenite (As^(III)) to arsenate (As^(V)). After each oxidation reaction arsenite oxidase can react with a second molecule, a redox mediator, which acts as an electron acceptor, accepting electrons from the arsenite oxidase. Thus, the electron acceptor molecule is reduced and the arsenite oxidase, re-oxidised.

The oxidation of the reduced form of the electron acceptor molecule at an electrode forms the basis of an electrochemical biosensor for arsenite, and such a biosensor is described in WO2013/057515. To produce low-cost disposable biosensors, various electrode materials can be used, including metallic (gold, platinum and palladium) sputtered thin-film electrodes.

In the biosensor described in the prior art, a two-step reaction takes place. Firstly, there is a chemical reaction step between the arsenite oxidase and the electron acceptor. Secondly, there is a heterogeneous electron transfer step, which takes place between the electron acceptor molecule and the electrode.

The present invention is based on the realisation that in such a biosensor it is advantageous for both the chemical reaction step and the heterogeneous electron transfer step to be as fast as possible. In addition, for the purposes of creating a biosensor that detects arsenite levels in water (e.g. drinking water, surface and ground water) it is advantageous if the biosensor works fast at close to neutral pH values.

Potassium ferricyanide is an electron acceptor molecule that has fast electron transfer kinetics with electrodes, such as metallic sputtered thin-film electrodes, making it a good candidate redox mediator for use in an arsenite biosensor. However, at neutral pH (around pH 7) potassium ferricyanide has a slow chemical reaction rate when oxidising arsenite oxidase [Warelow, TP; (2015) Arsenite oxidase as a novel biosensor for arsenite. Doctoral thesis, UCL (University College London)]. The chemical oxidation of arsenite oxidase by potassium ferricyanide works best at acidic values close to pH 4.5. This means that water samples need to have their pH values adjusted to an acidic value by the addition of a suitable buffer, in order for ferricyanide to be used effectively as a redox mediator in an arsenite biosensor such as a biosensor described in WO2013/057515.

In contrast, horse heart cytochrome C has a fast chemical reaction rate when oxidising arsenite oxidase at close to neutral pH values (pH 7). However, it has poor electron transfer kinetics on unmodified macroscopic metallic thin-film electrodes. This means that if cytochrome C is to be used effectively as a redox mediator in a arsenite biosensor such as a biosensor described in WO2013/057515, it is necessary to modify gold thin-film electrodes with a chemical, such as 4,4′-Dipyridyl disulphide, to increase the electron transfer rate between cytochrome C and the electrode.

The present inventors have realised that at pH 7, ferricyanide will chemically oxidise horse heart cytochrome C with a fast reaction rate. Therefore, instead of using a single electron acceptor molecule (ferricyanide or cytochrome C) the inventors have developed a new system in which the overall reaction rates of the biosensor at neutral pH values are increased by using two redox mediators (exemplified as cytochrome C and ferricyanide). This is illustrated in FIG. 1.

Accordingly, a first aspect of the invention provides a device for detecting the presence of an analyte in a sample, comprising (i) at least one electrode, (ii) an oxidase enzyme, and (iii) first and second redox mediators.

The analyte is preferably an arsenic derivative, preferably arsenite (As^(III)). The device includes two redox mediators. The term “redox mediator” is defined as any moiety capable of transferring electrons from the enzyme to the electrode surface. Artificial redox mediators such as 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) are often used in solution in laboratory-based spectrophotometric measurements; however spectrophotometric measurements are not routinely used in field test equipment.

As explained above, the inclusion of two redox mediators is advantageous, compared with existing devices which comprise only a single redox mediator, or in which the enzyme is directly linked to an electrode. The presence of two redox mediators improves the rate and efficiency of electron transfer through the system from the enzyme to the electrode.

In a first chemical reaction step, the first redox mediator accepts an electron from the enzyme. The first redox mediator then transfers an electron to the second redox mediator (i.e. the first redox mediator is oxidised by the second redox mediator). This is followed by heterogeneous electron transfer between the second redox mediator and the electrode, in which the second redox mediator is oxidised.

The first and second redox mediators may each be independently selected from suitable compounds where the compounds exist in two or more different redox states. Examples include iron, ruthenium, cobalt or osmium complexes such as ferrocene or ferrocene derivatives including ferrocene carboxylic acid, hydroxymethyl ferrocene (ferrocene methanol), and ferricyanide, tris(2,2′-bipyridine)dichlororuthenium(II) and cytochrome C and other redox biological molecules. Examples also include organic molecules that can exist in two or more accessible redox states, for example conducting organic polymers, conducting organic salts, tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) and quinones, 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol and other dyes. Preferably, the first and second redox mediators are different. Preferably, the first redox mediator is cytochrome C (including but not limited to horse heart cytochrome C). Preferably, the second redox mediator is ferricyanide or a lower potential iron complex.

In one embodiment, the device comprises a test strip made of polymer or ceramic materials. Preferably, the device comprises two or more planar electrodes. Preferably the device comprises a “reference electrode” in addition to the test electrode. At least the test electrode incorporates the As^(III) oxidase.

Advantageously, the device of the invention is versatile and works with a variety of test electrode materials. In a preferred embodiment, the electrode is made of one or more conducting materials, preferably selected from carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphite, gold, palladium, platinum, glassy carbon, nanostructured metal oxides or nanostructured metal. The electrode may be a metallic spluttered thin-film electrode made of gold, platinum or palladium. Alternatively, the electrode may be an unmodified macroscopic thin film metallic electrode.

Preferably, the reference electrode comprises a reference redox couple, such as Ag/AgCl.

The electrode materials can be deposited on the test strip by a variety methods including, but not limited to, screen-printing or evaporation or sputtering. The electrodes may be open or covered by a lid so forming a defined volume cell. There may, or may not, be a membrane covering the electrodes.

The test strip is suitable for laboratory use and, preferably, field-based use (i.e. As^(III) can be detected in a sample at the source using the test strip or device). The device may be suitable for multiple uses or a single use, and may be disposable.

Preferably, the device comprises a micro-structured surface, with the enzyme entrapped thereon with the two redox mediators. A micro-structured surface, for example pillars rising from the base of the electrode, improves the performance of the electrode.

Preferably the sample in which As^(III) is detected using the device of the invention is a liquid sample. The liquid sample may be any type of liquid that is susceptible to As^(III) contamination, including, but not limited to, ground-water, drinking-water, environmental liquids such as mining effluent and sewage, waste-water, biological samples.

In use, the test sample is brought into direct contact with the test strip. Operation of the sensor device involves applying an electrical potential between the test and reference electrodes and measuring the current. A number of methods would be apparent to those skilled in the art, and include, but are not limited to, chronoamperomerty, square wave voltammetry and coulometry.

The enzyme may be any oxidase, but in a preferred embodiment the enzyme is an arsenite oxidase. Most preferably, the arsenite oxidase enzyme is a modified version of the native As^(III) oxidase from Rhizobium sp. NT-26 (GenBank Accession Number AY345225). Such a modified enzyme is disclosed in WO2013/057515. The content of that publication is incorporated by reference herein.

The native As^(III) oxidase consists of two heterologous subunits: AioB is the small subunit largely composed of beta sheets and AioA is the large subunit largely composed of alpha-helices (Santini & van den Hoven (2004) J. Bacteriology. 186(6):1614-1619). The polypeptide sequence of wild-type AioB from Rhizobium sp. NT-26 is shown in SEQ ID No. 1 and SEQ ID No. 5 shows the corresponding nucleotide sequence. The AioB subunit comprises a Tat leader sequence (also referred to herein interchangeably as a Tat translocation signal sequence) which corresponds to the first 25 amino acids of SEQ ID No 1. This translocation signal sequence is shown as SEQ ID No. 2 and SEQ ID No. 6 shows the nucleotide sequence of the portion of the aioB gene encoding the translocation signal sequence. The signal sequence directs the transport of the protein to the periplasm using the Twin Arginine Translocation (Tat) pathway.

The native As^(III) oxidase has been modified by modifying the translocation signal sequence in the AioB subunit. As a result of the modification, the modified enzyme is not exported from the host cytoplasm, and as a result can be expressed in large, commercially-viable quantities.

The translocation signal sequence can be modified by various methods which will be apparent to a person skilled in the art, including frame-shift mutations, substitution mutations or deletion. Any modification that results in loss of function of the native translocation signal sequence can be used, however deletion of the translocation signal sequence or a functional fragment thereof, is preferred.

The modified As^(III) oxidase comprises two subunits. The first subunit corresponds to the native AioA subunit from NT-26, or a variant, derivative or homologue thereof. The second subunit corresponds to the native AioB subunit from NT-26, or a variant, derivative or homologue thereof; however a portion of the native AioB subunit which corresponds to the translocation signal sequence, or a functional fragment of the translocation signal sequence, is modified in the enzyme of the invention. Preferably, the portion of the native AioB subunit which corresponds to the translocation signal sequence, or a functional fragment thereof, is modified by deletion.

Preferably, at least a portion of the aioB gene which encodes the translocation signal sequence, or a portion thereof encoding a functional fragment of the translocation signal sequence, is modified, preferably by deletion.

The portion of the aioB gene sequence encoding the translocation signal sequence is identified herein as SEQ ID NO. 6. Either the complete sequence identified as SEQ ID NO. 6 or a homologue of this sequence encoding a functional fragment of the translocation signal sequence may be modified. As a result of the modification to the nucleotide sequence, the modified enzyme of the invention does not comprise the amino acid sequence identified herein as SEQ ID No. 2, or does not comprise a portion thereof that is required for a functional translocation signal sequence.

As used herein, the term ‘functional fragment’ means that the portion of the nucleotide sequence that is modified (e.g. by deletion) encodes a polypeptide having Tat translocation signal sequence activity, preferably having at least the same activity of the polypeptide shown as SEQ ID NO: 2. As a result of the modification, the recombinant enzyme of the invention lacks such Tat translocation signal sequence activity.

As used herein, the term “homologue” refers to a nucleotide sequence that encodes a polypeptide which has Tat translocation signal sequence activity. With respect to sequence similarity, preferably there is at least 60%, more preferably at least 70%, more preferably at least 75%, more preferably at least 85%, more preferably at least 90% sequence similarity between SEQ ID NO. 6 and the sequence of the native aioB gene that is modified according to the invention. More preferably there is at least 95%, more preferably at least 98%, sequence similarity. These terms also encompass allelic variations of the sequences.

The portion of the aioB gene that is modified may comprise or consist of the sequence identified herein as SEQ ID NO. 6.

SEQ ID No. 3 corresponds to the amino acid sequence of the AioB subunit excluding the entire native leader region. SEQ ID No. 7 shows the corresponding nucleotide sequence. If the entire AioB leader region is deleted, then the AioB subunit of the modified enzyme of the invention will correspond to SEQ ID No. 3. However, a portion of the leader region within the AioB subunit may remain unmodified, provided that the portion of the leader region that is modified renders the remaining portion non-functional.

SEQ ID No. 4 shows the amino acid sequence of the AioA subunit and SEQ ID No. 8 shows the corresponding nucleotide sequence.

The modified As^(III) oxidase may comprise homologues, variants or derivatives of SEQ ID Nos. 3 and 4.

The terms “variant”, “homologue”, “derivative” or “fragment” as used herein include any substitution, variation, modification, replacement, deletion or addition of one (or more) amino acid from or to a sequence. The variant may have a deletion, insertion or substitution variation. The variation may produce a silent change and a functionally equivalent polypeptide, or may result in improved catalytic function or other characteristics of the resulting enzyme. Deliberate amino acid substitutions may be made on the basis of similar physio-chemical properties such as size, charge and hydrophobicity in order to alter the catalytic function or other properties or characteristics of the enzyme.

Unless the context admits otherwise, references to “AioA” and “AioB” include references to such variants, homologues and derivatives of the native subunits. The term “homologue” covers identity with respect to structure and/or function and is used to refer to peptides that share levels of sequence identity or similarity to SEQ ID Nos. 3 and 4 and retain at least the functionality of the native amino acid sequences. The variants may result in improvements in the catalytic activity or other properties of the resulting enzyme. These terms also encompass polypeptides derived from amino acids which are allelic variations of the aioA and/or aioB nucleic acid sequences (SEQ ID Nos. 7 and 8).

Levels of identity or similarity between amino acid sequences can be calculated using known methods. Publicly available computer based methods include BLASTP, BLASTN and FASTA (Atschul et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 25: 3389-3402 (1997)), the BLASTX program available from NCBI, and the GAP program from Genetics Computer Group, Madison Wis.

It is preferable if there is at least 60% sequence identity or similarity to the specified peptides of SEQ ID Nos. 3 and 4, preferably 70%, more preferably 80% and most preferably greater than 90%, e.g. at least 95% to the sequences of SEQ ID Nos. 3 and 4. The removal of the Tat leader sequence or a functional fragment thereof to prevent export to the periplasm is a known technique, and has been used previously in the production of heterodimeric molybdenum-containing enzymes (Malasarn et al. (2008), J Bacteriol, 190, 135-142). However, As^(III) oxidase differs from other molybdenum-containing enzymes in that it is a much larger α₂β₂ heterotetramer containing additional co-factors (i.e. a 3Fe-4S cluster and a Rieske 2Fe-2S cluster) not present in other molybdenum-containing enzymes). It has been demonstrated that the native enzyme is localised to the periplasm (Santini et al. (2000), J Bacteriol, 66, 92-97), given size of the assembled heterotetrameric complex it is therefore reasonable to speculate that two αβ heterodimers formed in the cytoplasm are exported (via the Tat system) to the periplasm prior to heterotetrameric complex formation. Therefore, the present inventors were surprised to find that that following removal of the Tat leader sequence, the modified As^(III) oxidase could achieve complete assembly (both subunit assembly and cofactor addition) to form a heterotetramer in the cytoplasm of the various E. coli strains.

For the avoidance of doubt, the abbreviations “aio”, “Aio”, “aro”, “Aro”, “aso” and “Aso” can be used interchangeably and all refer to the arsenite oxidase enzyme (gene or protein). The different abbreviations are the result of different nomenclature that has been used in the art (Lett et al., J. Bacteriology, 4 Nov. 2011; p. 207-208).

The advantage of using a modifying As^(III) oxidase is that is can be expressed successfully in heterologous expression systems such as E. coli at high, commercially-viable yields. Once expressed, the enzyme can be used to detect the presence of As^(III). The modified enzyme has been found to be equally effective as the native enzyme in catalysing the oxidation of As^(III) to arsenate As^(V) (Warelow & Santini, unpublished data). The absence of the translocation sequence does not impact upon the catalytic activity of the enzyme. The modified enzyme is therefore suitable for use in biosensors to detect the presence of As^(III).

A second aspect of the present invention is directed to the use of a device according to the first aspect of the invention as a biosensor to detect the presence of an analyte, preferably As^(III), in a sample. Preferably, the sample is a liquid sample, having a neutral pH of around 7.

A third aspect of the present invention provides an electrochemical system comprising an oxidase enzyme, an electrode and two redox mediators. Preferably, the oxidase enzyme is arsenite oxidase. Preferably the electrode is as defined above in relation to the first aspect of the invention.

In the electrochemical system according to the third aspect, a first redox mediator accepts an electron from the enzyme and transfers an electron to the second redox mediator. A second redox mediator accepts an electron from the first redox mediator and transfers an electron to the electrode.

The two redox mediators may each be independently selected from suitable compounds where the compounds exist in two or more different redox states. Examples include iron, ruthenium, cobalt or osmium complexes such as ferrocene or ferrocene derivatives including ferrocene carboxylic acid, hydroxymethyl ferrocene (ferrocene methanol), and ferricyanide, tris(2,2′-bipyridine)dichlororuthenium(II) and cytochrome C and other redox biological molecules. Examples also include organic molecules that can exist in two or more accessible redox states, for example conducting organic polymers, conducting organic salts, tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) and quinones, 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol and other dyes. Preferably, the first and second redox mediators are different. Preferably, the first redox mediator is cytochrome C (including but not limited to horse heart cytochrome C). Preferably, the second redox mediator is ferricyanide or a lower potential iron complex.

A fourth aspect of the present invention is directed to the use of an electrochemical system according to the third aspect of the invention to increase the overall reaction rate of an arsenite biosensor, as described in detail above.

The invention will now be described further with reference to the following non-limiting example.

Example

A homogeneous chemical reaction between one or two mediators, arsenite oxidase (Aio) and arsenite was allowed to run for 60 seconds at room temperature before measuring the reduced form of the second mediator electrochemically, using chronoamperometry.

Disposable thin-film gold sputtered electrode with a 15 mm square working electrode area were used. These were produced by laser ablation. A plastic tape with a 8 mm×8 mm square aperture was attached on top of the electrode to make an open sample cell. Electrochemical measurements were conducted with a PalmSens EmStat potentiostat using a standard three electrode set up, with a Ag/AgCl reference electrode. A new electrode was used for each electrochemical measurement.

Experiment 1

In the sample cell on top of the electrode a 10 microlitre volume of either a 0 ppb, 2500 ppb, 5000 ppb or 7500 ppb aqueous solution of arsenite was added to a 90 microlitre 10 mM phosphate buffer (pH=7.2) solution containing ferricyanide and 0.002028 Units of Aio. This gave final concentrations of 14 micromolar ferricyanide and either 0 ppb, 250 ppb, 500 ppb or 750 ppb arsenite. 60 seconds after mixing a chronoamperometry measurement was made by applying a step potential of 0.5 V vs Ag/AgCl reference electrode and recording data for 60 seconds.

The chronoamperometry results for experiment 1 are shown in FIGS. 2a and 2b . FIG. 2b is a magnified plot of FIG. 2a . FIG. 3 shows a plot of the integration of the chronoamperometry data shown in FIGS. 2a and 2 b.

Experiment 2

In the sample cell on top of the electrode a 10 microlitre volume of either a 0 ppb, 2500 ppb, 5000 ppb or 7500 ppb aqueous solution of arsenite was added to a 90 microlitre 10 mM phosphate buffer (pH=7.2) solution containing horse heart cytochrome C and 0.002028 Units of Aio. This gave final concentrations of 100 nanomolar horse heart cytochrome C and either 0 ppb, 250 ppb, 500 ppb or 750 ppb arsenite. 60 seconds after mixing a chronoamperometry measurement was made by applying a step potential of 0.5 V vs Ag/AgCl reference electrode and recording data for 60 seconds.

The chronoamperometry results for experiment 2 are shown in FIGS. 4a and 4b . FIG. 4b is a magnified plot of FIG. 4a . FIG. 5 shows a plot of the integration of the chronoamperometry data shown in FIGS. 4a and 4 b.

Experiment 3: In the sample cell on top of the electrode a 10 microlitre volume of either a 0 ppb, 2500 ppb, 5000 ppb or 7500 ppb aqueous solution of arsenite was added to a 90 microlitre 10 mM phosphate buffer (pH=7.2) solution containing ferricyanide, horse heart cytochrome C and 0.002028 Units of Aio.

This gave final concentrations of 14 micromolar ferricyanide, 100 nanomolar horse heart cytochrome C and either 0 ppb, 250 ppb, 500 ppb or 750 ppb arsenite. 60 seconds after mixing a chronoamperometry measurement was made by applying a step potential of 0.5 V vs Ag/AgCl reference electrode and recording data for 60 seconds.

The chronoamperometry results for experiment 3 are shown in FIGS. 6a and 6b . FIG. 6b is a magnified plot of FIG. 6a . FIG. 7 shows a plot of the integration of the chronoamperometry data shown in FIGS. 6a and 6 b.

As clearly shown in FIG. 8, at pH 7.2 the dual mediator system more rapidly converts the final mediator (in experiment 3 this is ferricyanide) to the reduced form, so that when the reduced form is re-oxidised using chronoamperometry and the time-current curve is integrated, a higher charge value is observed.

As clearly shown in FIG. 9, for single mediators there is very little increase in measured current with increasing arsenite concentration, while the dual mediator system produces a higher increase in current with increasing arsenite concentration. This provides an improved signal to noise ratio when measuring different concentrations of arsenite. The increase in current with increasing arsenite concentration enables rapid arsenic measurements to be made using the dual mediator system of the present invention. 

1. A device for detecting the presence of an analyte in a sample, comprising (i) at least one electrode, (ii) an oxidase enzyme, and (iii) first and second redox mediators.
 2. The device according to claim 1, wherein the electrode comprises one or more conducting materials selected from carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphite, gold, palladium, platinum, glassy carbon, nanoscale metal oxides and/or nanoscale metal.
 3. The device according to claim 2, wherein the electrode is a metallic spluttered thin-film electrode made of gold, platinum or palladium.
 4. The device according to claim 2, wherein the electrode is an unmodified macroscopic thin film metallic electrode.
 5. The device according to claim 1, wherein the first and second redox mediators are each independently selected from compounds which exist in two or more different redox states, and selected from iron, ruthenium, cobalt or osmium complexes such as ferrocene or ferrocene derivatives including ferrocene carboxylic acid, hydroxymethyl ferrocene (ferrocene methanol), and ferricyanide, tris(2,2′-bipyridine)dichlororuthenium(II) and cytochrome C, conducting organic polymers, conducting organic salts, tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) and/or quinones, and 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol.
 6. The device according to claim 1, wherein the first and second redox mediators are different.
 7. The device according to claim 1, wherein the first redox mediator accepts an electron from the enzyme and transfers an electron to the second redox mediator.
 8. The device according to claim 1, wherein the first redox mediator is cytochrome C.
 9. The device according to claim 1, wherein the second redox mediator accepts an electron from the first redox mediator and transfers an electron to the electrode.
 10. The device according to claim 1, wherein the second redox mediator is ferricyanide or a lower potential iron complex.
 11. The device according to claim 1, wherein the analyte is an arsenic derivative.
 12. The device according to claim 1, wherein the oxidase enzyme is arsenite oxidase.
 13. The device according to claim 12, wherein the arsenite oxidase enzyme is a molybdenum-containing arsenite oxidase Aio from NT-26, or is derived from Aio from NT-26.
 14. The device according to claim 13, wherein the arsenite oxidase enzyme is modified to prevent translocation to the periplasm, wherein the enzyme comprises the native AioA subunit from NT-26, or a variant, homologue or derivative thereof, and the native AioB subunit from NT-26, or a variant, homologue or derivative thereof, wherein a portion of the native AioB subunit corresponding to the translocation signal sequence, or a functional fragment thereof, is modified.
 15. The device according to claim 14, wherein a portion of the native aioB gene which encodes the translocation signal sequence, or a portion thereof encoding a functional fragment of the translocation signal sequence, is modified.
 16. The device according to claim 15, wherein the portion of the native aioB gene comprises the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO. 6, or a homologue of SEQ ID NO. 6 encoding a functional fragment of the translocation signal sequence comprising the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO.
 2. 17. The device of claim 14, wherein the modification is deletion.
 18. The device of claim 14, wherein the AioB subunit comprises of the peptide sequence of SEQ ID NO. 3, or a variant, homologue or derivative thereof, or is encoded by the polynucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO. 7, or a variant, homologue or derivative thereof.
 19. The device according to claim 15, wherein the AioA subunit comprises the peptide sequence of SEQ ID NO. 4, or a variant, homologue or derivative thereof, or is encoded by the polynucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO. 8, or a variant, homologue or derivative thereof.
 20. The device according to claim 1, further comprising a reference electrode.
 21. The device according to claim 20, wherein the reference electrode comprises a Ag/AgCl reference redox couple.
 22. The device according to claim 1, wherein the device is a test strip with a micro-structured surface.
 23. A method of detecting the presence of arsenite in a sample, comprising contacting the device of claim 1 with the sample, thereby detecting arsenite in the sample when arsenite is present in the sample.
 24. The method according to claim 23, wherein the sample is a liquid sample.
 25. The method according to claim 23, wherein the sample has a neutral pH of around pH7.
 26. An electrochemical system comprising an arsenite oxidase enzyme, an electrode and two redox mediators. 27-31. (canceled) 